First Generations: Women in Colonial America 

Carol Berkin 

Chapter 1: Immigrants to Paradise: White Women in the Seventeenth-Century Chesapeake

            The characteristics of Chesapeake society were quite unique in many senses. The Chesapeake region deviated from English social norms and for that reason many of the social institutions within the region were quite unstable, which led to relatively ambiguous gender roles for women in the Chesapeake (Berkin, 6).  With that being said in order to describe the union of man and woman in the Chesapeake one would begin to merely state that it was not only common, but rather the norm, for men and women to both marry more than once throughout their lifetime (Berkin, 5).  Possibly one of the reasons for the common occurrence second marriages was the fact that many women married extremely young within the region. And yet some men were considered fortunate to find a wife for the fact that the sex ratio of men to women was six to one, and yet still three to one as late as 1680 (Berkin, 6).

            Mortality rates within the Chesapeake appeared to be devastating. Women were especially susceptible to an early death due to vulnerability of bacterial diseases during pregnancy (Berkin, 7).  Men generally lived longer than women, something that has come to change now centuries later. As for pregnancy, women were generally pregnant every two years until they reached menopause or died (Berkin, 9).  And life expectancy for children was no greater than women, “forty-five percent of all white children born within the Chesapeake region died before their twentieth birthday” (Berkin, 6). 

            Different than that of English Society, Chesapeake households lacked the developed elements of housewifery, for they lacked churns and spinning wheels, and rudimentary tools, this made kitchen duties extremely difficult but more so time consuming.  Not only did women work in the kitchen, tending to household duties and raising the children, they also worked alongside their husbands in the fields, adding to a never ending supply of daily chores for the Chesapeake woman. “The tasks of childbearing and household and fieldwork were the primary physical and economic constraints in the life of a white Chesapeake woman”(Berkin, 13). 

            Ironically so, gossip was a fierce weapon amongst Chesapeake women, for the fact that they were left out of ‘large politics’ of government (Berkin, 11). It was quite often that women called each other ‘whores’,  defiling the names and reputations of young women. For this reason there was an intense need to protect ones reputation by making strictly calculated decisions and interactions with those from the opposite sex, so that in no way could a man or woman, question another  woman’s fidelity and loyalty to her husband (Berkin, 12).  Married women were much more susceptible to extreme consequences from a tarnished reputation due to accusations of promiscuity than that of a single woman for the fact that a married woman was dependent on her husband economically (Berkin, 12). 

          The most empowering role of women in Chesapeake society was that of the widow, for the fact that when a women’s husband died, she was then made responsible for matters that the said husband left behind, such as control over wealth and property; such assignments were not only limited but rather not permitted within the Chesapeake society in relation the roles of women (Berkin, 20).  

Opinion:

             At first glance women within the Chesapeake region appeared to resemble the modern day woman more so than that of other women living during colonial America.  This statement would appear true in relation to the various duties assigned to them such as house work, tending to the fields, or raising children, and taking care of the household.  But if one were to take a second look it all appears tiresome, and the characteristics which represent such a time period do not scream autonomy for women.  It appeared that there was an extreme paranoia for reputations due to sexual promiscuity, or rather the accusations of such, Something that is not as feared today with the embracement of women’s sexuality and feminist movements and organizations that have worked hard to eliminate the double standard that haunts our society in relation to men and women’s sexuality. Also today with the advance of medicine women are capable of not only having their babies but they are also surviving their pregnancies, in fact it is now abnormal for a woman to die after giving birth.

              The social status of a widow best represents and relates to what is now today the role of the average American woman.  A widow had the freedom to own property, which in effect gave her wealth which in every society around the world is equivalent to power, or at the very least, it betters ones social status.

  

Chapter 2: Goodwives and Bad: New England Women in the Seventeenth Century

 Hannah Emerson Duston

New England was characterized by a puritan culture, and once again, a man’s world that a woman just so happened to find herself living in. As for social status, a woman was fixed below her husband and above that of her children and her servants, and in no way would a woman’s life in New England be characterized by autonomous (Berkin, 27).  With that being said, it was common for the man’s world, that of business, and the women’s world, that of the home, to overlap. It was common for women to be present when debts were contracted and other business deals, with that being said, women gained much knowledge in relation to such tasks, and it would be of no surprise to state that women most likely had some type of affect/influence on their husbands decisions (Berkin, 30). In New England a family’s wealth consisted of land and livestock (Berkin, 29). 

During 17^th century New England, “Very few white women placed themselves outside the limits of the patriarchal family”(Berkin, 27).  With that being said, New England women found that their housewifery consisted of marketplace exchanges and few productive enterprises as well. It became common for young puritan girls to marry before the age of twenty and by the 1650’s the marriage age of these young girls steeply dropped to below sixteen years of age (Berkin, 25).  As in the Chesapeake region, the ratio between the sexes was too, unbalanced, creating various consequences (Berkin, 25).  It would be interesting to research if whether the imbalance of men and women within these colonial societies led to a higher percentage of affairs with married women, because it would be safe to believe that there would be few single women by the time they were in their mid twenties, if any. 

New England, just as was the case in the Chesapeake region death came early for many, but in comparison, those who survived to adulthood actually lived longer than those in tobacco regions such as Chesapeake. And at least three percent and possibly even ten percent of women who became pregnant and gave birth between 1630 and 1670 died following the birth of their child. In fact it was not the first child/birth that posed the worst threat, but rather the many births that followed (Berkin, 26).  

During 17^th century New England, “Very few white women placed themselves outside the limits of the patriarchal family”(Berkin, 27).  With that being said, New England women found that their housewifery consisted of marketplace exchanges and few productive enterprises as well. It became common for young puritan girls to marry before the age of twenty and by the 1650’s the marriage age of these young girls steeply dropped to below sixteen years of age (Berkin, 25).  As in the Chesapeake region, the ratio between the sexes was too, unbalanced, creating various consequences (Berkins, 25).  It would be interesting to research if whether the imbalance of men and women within these colonial societies led to a higher percentage of affairs with married women, because it would be safe to believe that there would be few single women by the time they were in their mid twenties, if any. 

Records of marital strife show evidence that men did indeed inflict various types of abuse on their wives in 17^th century New England.  Such actions were defended on the stance of those in authority disciplining their subordinates. John Tillison chained his wife by the leg while he plowed in an attempt to not allow her leave the house, one man in Maine kicked his wife in the face because she refused to feed his pig, and Daniel Ela was literally caught beating his wife, his response to such actions was that his wife was his servant and his slave (Berkin, 31).  It is interesting that such acts were condoned, or at the very least tolerated in a Puritan culture, where God was put above all else, and morals were to not be compromised. “Puritanism was more than a theology and more than a theology and more than an institution; it was, as scholars have observed and documented from the seventeenth century onward, a way of life” (Berkin, 35). And the puritan way of life did not condone the outright preaching of women in the church, once again that position was withheld for a man (Berkin, 38).

Witchcraft, or the ‘witch hunts’ became a serious phenomena within New England society.  Those most susceptible to accusations were those who were suffering from a decline in social status, or those who were poor and needy. “Women accused of witchcraft were often at the age of menopause-poised, as the puritans understood it, between the preparatory stages of childhood and youth and the declining stage of old age” (Berkin, 47).  In 1692 the Salem witch hunts took place, many were accused of meddling in witchcraft, an offense obviously not taken lightly in a Puritan controlled society (Berkin, 48). By the summer of 1692 nineteen people were convicted and executed; most of these individuals were women who pleaded their innocence up until their death (Berkin, 49). 

In many ways New England was extremely different from that of the Chesapeake region, at least culturally, but in many ways the two are extremely similar, as would be the expected case with many other regions during colonial America at this time.

Opinion: From what I have read, it is my understanding that had I been given a chance to live in New England I most likely would have chosen not to do so.  For obvious reasons, the Salem witch hunt is by no means a matter to be taken lightly.  It is hard for me to believe that all 19 people convicted and executed were all in fact involved in witchcraft.  It appears to be just another example of a paranoid society taking matters way too far, and that is an extreme understatement. I found many similarities between New England and the Chesapeake, for instance mortality rates did not fare well for women, especially in relation to child birth, the sex ratio between the two genders, and the emphasis of a strict community built on the unwillingness to compromise the status of the male as essentially god on earth for these women. 

Chapter 3: The Sisters of Pocahontas: Native American Women in the Centuries of Colonization 

Wetamo

When Plymouth was settled and the English moved into the New England region they created treaties with local Native Americans. This was important to keep ties civil and to work together to live and flourish in the area. There was peace forged between the Wampanoag’s and the Plymouth plantation that allowed life to carry on nicely, but over the years times changed. Wetamo was born in time of peace for the two communities, she was in an aristocratic family and when she got to marriage age she married Wamsutta the son of Massasoit the leader of Wampanoag tribe. This made a lot of sense at the time because it unit two leading families between two communities. The problems start to occur with death of Massasoit and the changes that had occurred over the years with the English coming into the New World in great numbers and no longer needing help or resources from the natives. The massacre of Pequot was huge for the couple as they saw the dangers for Wampanoag. Plymouth colonists got angry as the couple when they heard that land in Rhode Island has been sold to others instead of them and so they took Wamsutta and he died (mysteriously). This started war between Plymouth and Wampanoag that Wetamo would lead. She would have a few victories for Native Americans but in the end she died and her head on a pole.

We can learn from the story of Wetamo and Wamsutta. Wetamo was a Native American queen for the Wampanoag tribe. She stood by her people and fought for revenge for her people who were being taken advantage of by the English. She did not give up like others in the tribe, including her second husband who was willing to just let the English win. Native American women could hold high positions in society when it called for it, like in case of Wetamo. On average however, women talked politics but did not enact them. Women held special place in tribe, because they were the care takers, food preparers, farmers, and would teach the girls trades as they grew up so that they would be useful to the tribe as adults.  

When the Europeans came into the New World they took everything from the Wampanoag tribe. At first they took their kindness and help to survive. Then they turned against them killing off their people, waging war and in the end only a few survivors remained; the question is would they even want to remain without their culture, people or land.

Opinion:

The story of Wampanoag tribe being so used and abused by the settlers of Plymouth does not surprise me at all. In the race to get land and power in a new world for the Europeans they took and took from the natives, not giving much in return and then once they did not need their help anymore they obliterated them just because they could. The native tribes were not really given opportunities to thrive and if the English did not kill them with guns then they killed them with disease. It is a sad injustice that plagued the Native Americans.
I do like to read about a women being the leader of the tribe. The book says that the English did not share the stories of Wetamo at first because it makes them look guilty of exterminating a Native American tribe. I am glad that the story has risen out of the shadows and is available to be heard now. I can only imagine how scary it would be to have people that you were at peace with and friendly with to turn on you in just 40 years after your people had helped them survive and were allies to them. Wetamo was a brave women who showed pride in her people and stands out with greats like Queen Elizabeth as a women in power who did all they could for their nation.

Chapter 4: In a "Babel of Confusion": Women in the Middle Colonies

Margaret Hardenbroeck 

The Middle Colonies were by far the most diverse in culture, religion, ethnicity and social class, in comparison with the other colonial regions (Berkin,102). In fact it appears that the Middle Colonies were at least somewhat embracing of the improvement of the social status and the establishment of standards for women, especially in terms of women entering the work force. Women began to establish jobs within the Middle Colonies, something less seen within the other regions of the colonial world. “In 1745 less than one-fifth of the city’s servants were women; by the end of the century, scarce or numerous, these women struggled on the margins of society” (Berkin,100).  Many servants went from job to job, due to abuse, conflict, or the fact that many of these jobs were considered temporary in the first place. The conditions for women servants were not optimal; they could be lectured, or just outright fired. Stability was by no means an appropriate representation of the work force for women, especially in relation to servant employment  (Berkin, 98). 

If there was one entity, or organization institution that somewhat allowed women a sense of individuality, or autonomy (only in a sense) it would have been the Quaker religion.  Such leaders preached equality for all men and women; this went against the already established social hierarchy of society (Berkin, 88). “The early Quakers earned a reputation as evangelicals, traveling across England, exhorting men and women to give up the sins and vanities of the world and listen to the voice of God within them.” (Berkin, 88).  In relation to the Quaker religion women could actually make an impact, and establish themselves socially. In fact, “for women whose life choices were in harmony with Quaker prescriptive, the opportunity for leadership and public recognition far exceeded those in the non-Quaker world.” (Berkin, 94).  Women were even capable and did become elders and ministers within the Quaker community. It is ironic that the one institution, notorious for suppressing women’s rights throughout the world and along the centuries, ‘the church’ was the one institution that embraced and opened up doors for women, somewhat, within the Middle Colonies.

Opinion: It appears that Middle Colonies quite actually resemble the America that we know and live in today.  A world where women are able to receive jobs for pay, a world where women are able to speak out within the church, even becoming ministers, which in actuality is still a heated topic debate (whether or not women should be allowed to take positions of spiritual authority within the church).  If I was a woman within the 17^th century, and I had a choice between living in the Chesapeake region, New England, or the Middle Colonies, I would most certainly choose the Middle Colonies.  It was socially diverse, and appeared to have been more accepting of women in general, at least from the brief discussion provided by First Generations

Chapter 5: The Rhythms of Labor: African-American Women in Colonial Society

Africans were forced away from their homes in Africa, chained, branded and marched to the ships to be taken across the Atlantic Ocean in close quarters to one another on a ship. Women coming across may have been separated from their parents, siblings, husband, and children. The loneliness and sadness would have only gotten worse upon landing in the New World with the new culture, language, climate and the fact that they would be owned for most likely the rest of their lives forced to do heavy and tiring labor everyday all day.

Mary was no different as she was forced into slavery and ended up at Bennett’s tobacco plantation. She happened to have some luck in New World as she married Antonio/Anthony Johnson and be married for 40 years rising from slavery to freedom and having four children. They had land of their own, used the laws to protect their rights and lived relatively like a white family in the colony.

Opinion

I think it is amazing how the Johnson family being made up of a Creole man and an African women slave made their lives better by taking opportunities and chances to get freedom in the colony and ended up having lives like their white counter parts even having slaves themselves. They were so assimilated that Mary was treated like white wives and did not have to pay taxes.

                  I think that it would have been odd to come over to the new world as a slave and feeling alone and defeated by white masters who controlled me and then to overcome their chains and to be almost an equal to white counterparts. I think it is even more interesting that the Johnson’s owned slaves themselves and Anthony even took court action against a neighbor to get their slave back. After these first slaves in New World slave society gets so much worse and the African’s are treated so poorly. It would be weird to know that others had gained freedom and at least somewhat had a good life in the same position that the new slaves coming in were at, but they never enjoyed their own lands or freedoms like Mary.

Chapter 6:The Rise of Gentility: Class and Regional Differences in the Eighteenth Century

Eliza Lucas Pinckney

             This chapter was about the life of a prominent upper class woman named Eliza Lucas who was the daughter of a military officer in England. In her early life, her father was her full power of his plantation when he was called back to a military campaign.

Her being in this place of power was not out of economic necessity, like it would have for any other woman in her colony. Even though her father had the money to hire a housekeeper, but he turned everything over to Eliza at the bright young age of 16.

Eliza was a well educated young woman, who was unmarried.  And her father new this fact, and tried to marry his daughter off many times, but Eliza told her father she wasn’t ready to get married, and that she wanted to wait until she was ready. 

Opinion:   This just goes to show that even women in the 1700’s had some control over their lives, even if it wasn’t very, some still managed to put off marriage until they were ready themselves. I feel this is almost a stepping stone for women in this era, because even though Eliza was an only child, her father could have easily found a male to run his plantation rather than his only daughter. If I was in this era, I would have been honored to the head of my father’s plantation, rather than him just not trusting me with the duties of being the head of the family business. And having the ability to stand up to my father and say I’m not ready to settle down and have a husband and kids, until I was ready. For Eliza to do that and later in her life decide to pass on the family business in order to raise a family and only after the kids were all grown up and starting their lives did she go back into the family business in which her father had left her when she was a teenager.   

Chapter 7: "Beat of Drum and Ringing of Bell": Women in the American Revolution

             As for Grace Galloway her life during the Revolution, she thought her life was perfect. She had a husband and a happy and healthy daughter. Granted prior to her married life she was an “imperious and confident” woman, who worse than a canvas was not for the idea of preserving her image. It was said that a woman of her status knew her place among society. All though she was not a woman whose status was questioned ever, due to the fact her father’s great wealth and public service as a lawyer in their town. Then after she married, she become legally invisible, and her husband had all the power in the family, leaving her with very little. And when her husband’s colony was threatened by the crown of England, he fled with his daughter and left his wife behind.

Opinion: I feel that during this era, women like Grace who comes from money and where often married off and often then became invisible to society after they were married and had kids of their own. And when their husband’s leave them, it is often said that the husband told her to stay behind and tend the family farm.